Methane Mania: Methane Hydrates and Their Effects
There is no doubt that we live in precarious times. A large part of today’s global interests lie in energy production and consumption. As populations increase there is a growing need for more and more resources to ensure a somewhat equal quality of life. We rely on large governments and world markets to help provide us with the three modern essentials for sustaining our health: food, clothing, and shelter. This means that food processing centers must be erected to house large numbers of animals. To supply the masses with clothing we have invented large commercial and industrial factories that can thread their way through a year’s cotton crop in no time at all. Industry has adapted housing development to meet the needs of hot climates and cold climates, creating insulated hot-box units that have temperature control exclusive from the outside environment. Our ever developing modern world is dependent on large quantities of usable energy, but it is also leaving a very heavy carbon foot print in its wake. In our food processing centers, where large numbers of livestock are raised in close relations to one another, scientists find measurably elevated levels of methane gas. Commercial and Industrial factories have historically emitted countless environmental toxins in gaseous form. In our homes we primarily burn carbon-based fuels to keep ourselves warm. These things all add up to very ripe conditions for the greenhouse effect; wherein, Earth’s atmosphere becomes super-saturated with gases that trap heat from the Sun.
As our man-made lifestyles continue to need abundant sources of energy we are slowly becoming aware of our own addition to the overall stock of greenhouse emissions. Our efforts now drive us towards fuels that burn more efficiently and less toxically. Of the various gases that fill our atmosphere, methane is currently in the spotlight. Geologists, geophysicists, chemical engineers, ecologists, paleoclimatologists, hydrologists, biogeochemists, and Quaternary anthropologists alike are flocking to their methane testing laboratories. D. Archer, from the University of Chicago’s Department of the Geophysical Sciences, spent time conducting methane tests along the Arctic coastline of Siberia (521). However, a desolate and isolated place in world geography doesn’t seem a likely place for studies of possible annihilation due to heavy amounts of methane. Scientists aren’t focusing on the air. There is a goldmine in oceanic and permafrost deposit methane gas research. Although escaping methane gases in the Arctic Ocean does not raise an alarm for some people, it should because the pockets of methane gas under the ocean floor and in the permafrost are vast, the gas can potentially be used as a source of alternative energy, and it may very well mark a climactic doomsday.
A very common idea of methane is related to us in the children’s rhyme, “Beans, beans, the wonderful fruit; the more you eat, the more you toot.” A more technical study of methane gas names this process “bacterial methanogenesis” (Koh & Sloan 1639). Koh and Sloan relate that bacterial methanogenesis is the process by which bacteria breakdown organic matter, creating methane as an excreted byproduct (1639). All organic matter on Earth degrades over time. Methane occurs in nature in one of two forms, biogenic and thermogenic (Archer 521). Archer states that, “one is biological, mediated by bacteria at low temperatures, and the other is abiological, occurring spontaneously at elevated temperatures” (521). The current atmospheric methane level is 3 Gtons (gigaton), and outside of human interaction seems to maintain an overall equilibrium with the other atmospheric gases rather well (Archer 523).
The total inventory of methane comes from atmospheric counts, and from deposits of solid methane formations found deep under ocean floors and buried within the Arctic permafrost. These solid methane formations are categorized as hydrates. In their Geophysical Research Letters, Charles Paull et al surmise that, “gas hydrate is a solid phase comprised of water and low-molecular-weight gases, usually methane, that forms within sediments under conditions of low temperature, high pressure and adequate gas concentration” (1). Methane hydrates also go by a second name, clathrates, as in Clathrate Gun Hypothesis. The Clathrate Gun Hypothesis theorizes that an increase in global temperature by no more than 2 degrees Celsius will melt the global ice caps, whereby releasing an estimated 700,000 trillion cubic feet of gas world-wide (Koh & Sloan 1636). The Canadian Broadcasting Company, CNN News, and The Discovery Channel have only recently begun exploring this theory of global heating and consequent methane explosion. Scientists aren’t perturbed by the news. According to them science has known about gas hydrates since as early as 1778 (Koh & Sloan 1636).
Old news or not, for two hundred years very little was known about gas hydrates. It wasn’t until the mid-1990s and the advent of neutron and X-ray diffraction that science could mathematically produce the hydrate molecular shapes (Koh & Sloan 1637). In producing these models scientists can better understand how gas hydrates, and clathrates form and inter-act with the environment.
The Arctic permafrost was not always present. At a distant point in planetary history the ground that is now covered in ice was the playground for immeasurable numbers of organic life forms. During formation of the current ice caps, what were once wetlands became frozen ice sheets (Eliza Strickland). All of the biomass trapped in the ice has slowly decomposed in the low temperatures, forming frozen methane, or methane hydrates. As surrounding temperatures rise methane hydrates thaw releasing methane gas into the atmosphere. Charles Paull, et al. conducted experiments in the Beaufort Sea to better understand methane hydrates within the offshore permafrost. They studied “mud volcanoes,” “pingo-like features (PLFs)” (1). Their studies found, “more than 1,350 pingos, generally 10-40 meters tall and upwards of 100 meters or more in diameter” (1). These features are known to actively expel methane gas. The research group explains that as surface water temperature increases, so does the permafrost laden oceanic subsurface (Paull, et al. 1). “Warming results in gas hydrate decomposition in a gradually thickening zone, releasing gaseous methane into the sediments. Bubble formation associated with this phase change will create overpressured conditions: material may flow both laterally and vertically in response to overpressure: displaced sediments rise upwards to form the PLF and allow gas to vent” (Paull, et al. 4). N. Shakhova, in his Siberian Arctic experiments, has concluded that 86.5% of the Arctic Ocean sedimentary basin is a carbon pool; generally referred to as the “Arctic carbon hyper-pool” (1).
Methane gas is trapped within ice-shells that occupy the spaces between sediments. If these ice-shells melt, all of the methane affected by the warmth will escape. We are assured that most methane release is absorbed and used by the planet. This process is said to be a part of a much longer time cycle that is measured in kilo-years (kYr). According to the data collected by Koh and Sloan the current methane release rate is measured against its decomposition rate (1641). Etiope, at al. have assessed that these numbers show an equilibrium between atmospheric methane release and its decomposition into carbon dioxide, which the planetary wetlands use as food (83).
Scientists remain optimistic about discovering the properties of methane hydrates, and their uses. The major obstacle in hydrate production is that hydrates exist as the cement bond between sediments lying on ocean beds (D. Archer 528). It is difficult to release that bond and capture the methane before the methane escapes into its water environment, where it degrades at a rate of about 3 – 5 meters per day (D. Archer 528). Archer found that “a surface mixed layer 100 meters deep would approach equilibrium (degas) in about a month” (528). Typically, over a depth of 700 meters, methane gas will degrade completely before reaching the surface, thus creating no sea-to-air transfer of gas. Hydrate formations remain stable with the overall environment at depths of 700 meters or more. It is believed that atmospheric conditions cannot effect the ocean environment at those depths because of the temperature constants and high pressure levels. This means that global melting would actually reinforce hydrate deposits in the deep oceans by raising pressure levels on the sea floor. Geologists agree there is evidence of an ancient landslide in the Arctic Ocean that stretched half the distance from Norway to Greenland. Evidence shows this landslide might have caused a massive release of methane by disturbing the hydrates along the entire rift. They do not have conclusive evidence, but they find it a plausible cause for prehistoric mass extinction. The decaying biomass from that extinction period has formed into today’s methane hydrates.
Doomsday activists see this as evidence of a coming global catastrophe. Scientists, however, see this as a natural process that has been occurring for eons, and will continue long after our time on Earth ends. Some people have become apprehensive, not about ocean bound hydrates, but land bound hydrates trapped within permafrost. Climatologists disagree as to whether or not global warming is affecting permafrost in the way described by media groups. CNN and Discovery calculate that global warming is melting the polar ice caps - to include permafrost - which releases land bound hydrates. Permafrost is defined as ice that forms and does not melt for a period of two years or more. One area of the Siberian Arctic has land bound permafrost hundreds of meters thick that vents methane gas. Land bound hydrates have been found within the North Slope of Alaska. Global warming could heat the planet enough to melt the land bound permafrost, and expose the methane hydrates. If this happened very quickly there would be a very steep rise in the atmospheric methane count, creating further global warming. We are assured though that there is only enough methane hydrate within the land bound permafrost to affect our daily lives for a few decades (D. Archer 536). It is not believed that this sort of melting would significantly damage the human population; nor is it believed to be able to trigger further methane explosions further under the oceans. Apart from landslides, scientists believe that a growing ice age, which would relieve pressure from the ocean floors, would be the most likely trigger of a methane release massive enough to cause another mass extinction period.
Rather than brood in doom and gloom, industry is searching for ways of better utilizing what is known to be a usable energy source. Technology has netted us the ability to use methane gas as a combustion fuel. Since we can make fire with it we know that it has further energy applications: applications such as heating our homes, powering our factories, and possibly fueling our vehicles. What was once thought to be ice buildup inside deep oil wells is now known to be hydrate formation and accumulation within the pipe. Oil companies had previously mixed glycol into the pipes to stop supposed ice buildup because glycol transferred higher temperature levels throughout the well depth. Now they are looking for ways of extracting the hydrates intact, and using the methane gas trapped within. The challenge is in bringing the hydrates to the surface without degrading the methane content (Koh and Sloan 1642). There is also excitement about using the hydrate models to create gas storage packets for commercial transfer (Koh and Sloan 1641)).
Methane hydrates have proven to be of great importance. Some believe our lives are balanced by them. There are many within the science community who have found the Arctic Ocean coasts to be the best indicator of which way the methane pendulum will swing. At the same time, infrastructure suitable to methane hydrate exploitation already exists in the form of Arctic oil production. The probability of economic boom caused by utilizing these natural energy deposits is higher than that of environmental doom. Although science cannot agree about the future of methane hydrates, the likelihood of a Clathrate Gun, or much of the endogenic origins of known hydrate deposits, they all view methane gas research through core sampling to be valuable. It is this research that will bring energy savings into the homes of many people.
Methane is more than just a foul smelling gas. It is an essential component in the life cycle of our planet. Earth expels methane, breaks it down in the atmosphere, and then uses what is left as the planets own energy source. Even though there exists enough methane hydrate to destroy all life on Earth, it is not possible for all of the methane to be released at once. In the mean time it only makes sense to use this natural resource, and study its formations more closely.
--Works Cited--
Archer, D. “Methane Hydrate Stability and Anthropogenic Climate Change.” European Geosciences Union 4 (2008): 522-44. Biogeosciences. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.biogeosciences.net>.
Etiope, G; Milkov, A. V; Derbyshire, E. “Did Geologic Emissions of Methane Play Any Role in Quaternary Climate Change.” Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008): 79-88. ScienceDirect Freedom Collection. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.sciencedirect.com>.
Jacquot, Jeremy. "If Life Gives You Methane, Make Methane Energy." Discover Magazine (31 Jan. 2008). 31 Oct. 2008 http://discovermagazine.com/2008/feb/if-life-gives-you-methane-make-methane-energy.
Koh, Carolyn A; Sloan, E. Dendy. “Natural Gas Hydrates: Recent Advances and Challenges in Energy and Environmental Applications.” American Institute of Chemical Engineers 53.7 (2007): 1636-43. Wiley Interscience. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.interscience.wiley.com>.
Paull, Charles K; Ussler, W; Dallimore, Scott R; Blasco, Steve M; Lorenson, Thomas D; Melling, Humfrey;Medioli, Barbara E; Nixon, F. Mark; McLaughlin, Fiona A. “Origin of Pingo-Like Features on the Beaufort Sea Shelf and Their Possible Relationship to Decomposing Methane Gas Hydrates.” Geophysical Research Letters 34 (2007): 1-5. American Geophysical Union. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.agu.org>.
Shakhova, N; “Methane Release on the Arctic East Siberian Shelf.” Geophysical Research Abstracts 9 (2007): 1-2. European Geosciences Union. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.egu.eu>.
Strickland, Eliza. "A Monstrous Methane Belch Once Warmed the Earth." Discover Magazine (29 May 2008). 31 Oct. 2008 http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2008/05/29/a-monstrous-methane-belch/.
Strickland, Eliza. "Methane Bubbles in the Arctic Ocean Give Climate Scientists the Willies." Discover Magazine (24 Sept. 2008). 31 Oct. 2008 http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2008/09/24/methane-bubbles-in-the-arctic-ocean-give-climate-scientists-the-willies/.
“The Big Debate: Global Warming or National Security?” CNN Technology News 10 May 2007. 31 Oct. 2008 http://www.cnn.com/2007/TECH/science/08/30/energy.debate/index.html?iref=newssearch.
“Scientists Tapping Arctic Ocean Methane as Potential Cleaner Energy Source.” CBC News 27 Feb. 2007. 31 Oct. 2008 http://www.cbc.ca/technology/story/2008/02/27/nwt-methane.html.
28 November 2008
23 November 2008
Workshop for Sarah Newman
Cause/Effect Workshop
Thesis:
Although social networking websites such as MySpace and Facebook appear benign, they have negative effects on teenagers because teens may rely on Internet friends more than real friends, they might become involved with groups that encourage dangerous habits, and sexual predators lurk on websites like these.
1. Restate the thesis in your own words. If the thesis is a question and not an assertion, make it an assertion. Make sure the words “although” and "because" are in it.
Although social networking websites may seem harmless, they negatively effect teenagers because teens invest unhealthy levels of trust in the people they "meet", they become exposed to dangerous habits inappropriate for their age, and teenagers are a typical prey for sexual predators.
2. Does the thesis argue a link between a cause(s) and effect(s)? Is it at the end of the first paragraph?
Yes, social websites have dangerous effects on teenagers. It is at the end of the thesis paragraph.
3. List the cause(s).
Social websites appear safe for all users.
4. List the effect(s).
-- Teens rely on Internet friends more than real friends.
-- They might become involved with groups that encourage dangerous habits.
-- Sexual predators lurk on websites like MySpace and Facebook.
Audience:
Who is the author's audience? Will the audience already agree with the author, or is the author writing to the opposition? How can you tell? Give specific examples.
The audience might be parents of teenagers or social workers. The audience would agree, I think. The paper deals with a current problem our society is facing.
Counterargument:
List the counterarguments (arguments of the author’s oppositions) used in the paper (there should be at least three). Does the author adequately address these arguments? Do you think there are other arguments that could be addressed? Do you see any logical fallacies?
1. Teens that rely on Internet friends feel that they are faithful
2. Sites where people make pacts with other people to commit suicide on the same day and time.
3. They are able to transform themselves into the person they want to be.
They are used to support her argument.
Title:
Does the paper have an interesting title? If not, help author come up with one.
It isn't a very interesting title. Maybe something like: Teens! Teens!! and More Teens!!!
Introduction:
Is there a catchy lead sentence? What is it? If there isn't one, what would you suggest?
Not an interesting lead-in. Maybe incorporate the idea of your current lead-in with a personable anecdote.
Conclusion:
How does the author conclude the paper? What do you think of it?
Good closing paragraph, a few mechanics problems early on. The last sentence feels kind of globbed together.
Flow/Transitions:
Does each paragraph expand upon the thesis? Do the paragraphs flow? Which paragraphs have bumpy transitions?
Really good transitions, kept the context together. Watch for redundancies, "anyone can sign up for these sights."
Thesis:
Although social networking websites such as MySpace and Facebook appear benign, they have negative effects on teenagers because teens may rely on Internet friends more than real friends, they might become involved with groups that encourage dangerous habits, and sexual predators lurk on websites like these.
1. Restate the thesis in your own words. If the thesis is a question and not an assertion, make it an assertion. Make sure the words “although” and "because" are in it.
Although social networking websites may seem harmless, they negatively effect teenagers because teens invest unhealthy levels of trust in the people they "meet", they become exposed to dangerous habits inappropriate for their age, and teenagers are a typical prey for sexual predators.
2. Does the thesis argue a link between a cause(s) and effect(s)? Is it at the end of the first paragraph?
Yes, social websites have dangerous effects on teenagers. It is at the end of the thesis paragraph.
3. List the cause(s).
Social websites appear safe for all users.
4. List the effect(s).
-- Teens rely on Internet friends more than real friends.
-- They might become involved with groups that encourage dangerous habits.
-- Sexual predators lurk on websites like MySpace and Facebook.
Audience:
Who is the author's audience? Will the audience already agree with the author, or is the author writing to the opposition? How can you tell? Give specific examples.
The audience might be parents of teenagers or social workers. The audience would agree, I think. The paper deals with a current problem our society is facing.
Counterargument:
List the counterarguments (arguments of the author’s oppositions) used in the paper (there should be at least three). Does the author adequately address these arguments? Do you think there are other arguments that could be addressed? Do you see any logical fallacies?
1. Teens that rely on Internet friends feel that they are faithful
2. Sites where people make pacts with other people to commit suicide on the same day and time.
3. They are able to transform themselves into the person they want to be.
They are used to support her argument.
Title:
Does the paper have an interesting title? If not, help author come up with one.
It isn't a very interesting title. Maybe something like: Teens! Teens!! and More Teens!!!
Introduction:
Is there a catchy lead sentence? What is it? If there isn't one, what would you suggest?
Not an interesting lead-in. Maybe incorporate the idea of your current lead-in with a personable anecdote.
Conclusion:
How does the author conclude the paper? What do you think of it?
Good closing paragraph, a few mechanics problems early on. The last sentence feels kind of globbed together.
Flow/Transitions:
Does each paragraph expand upon the thesis? Do the paragraphs flow? Which paragraphs have bumpy transitions?
Really good transitions, kept the context together. Watch for redundancies, "anyone can sign up for these sights."
16 November 2008
Essay # 3 -- Rough Draft
Where Are You and What Are You Doing There?
During the middle ages there lived a wise priest. He was a noted theologian and philosopher. One day he kicked a boulder. His training and study brought him to the conclusion that the boulder was not really there. He believed that through using all of his mental capacities he could transcend physical reality. So he kicked the boulder as hard as he could, then he broke his foot.
History teaches us that there is no escape from life. As humans on planet earth we are born into a family, a clan, a tribe, a culture; we are born into a heritage and an ancestry, a world of social order that has worked to achieve perfection for millennia. We have built the world up around us, and we assume that everything is in its right place. Plodding along day after day we become accustom to routine and a sameness that dusts over everything. In a world that has become so small with our growing population it is difficult to “slow down and smell the roses.” Then, when a person does that they might think they can kick through a rock. Why do we think the way we think? How come when I want to be happy I get upset? What can I do to help set my own mind at ease. We are not just playing simple mind games with ourselves. There is a real cause behind our actions. Although most of us rarely take stock of our surroundings, we are affected by set and setting because we are a product of our environment, we become a part of the situation around us, and we are influenced by our senses.
If we need deep focus or concentration we do things like find a quiet place, or some place we feel is peaceful. We do this so that there aren’t distractions. Dr. Timothy Leary, in his studies, proved this. In his book, Flashbacks, Leary holds sessions with leading psychiatrists which attempted to unlock mysteries of human perception. During their studies, and with the aid of the powerful psychoactive drug LSD, they showed that the subconscious reacts according to perception. Leary and his group were testing theories of set of and setting. They found that a person feels less vulnerable and is more apt to find inner-peace when their surroundings are warm and inviting. They used low lighting, warm colors, and a guide to sit with, talk to, and who would document the patients’ reactions. Conversely, when they introduced bright lights, astringent smells, and chaotic sounds their patients showed varied levels of anger and frustration.
At about the same time, Tom Wolfe was writing a story about the Merry Pranksters called The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test. Tom Wolfe and the Merry Pranksters held very similar views about the effects of set and setting even though they were searching for different results. Where Leary and his crew wanted to show a path to man’s inner well-being, Wolfe and the Pranksters were seeking to unite the conscientiousness of mankind. Though when the two groups met up one night at Leary’s Millbrook estate they clashed wildly against one another, they were both achieving the same goal. The Pranksters, with help from people like Ken Keasy and the Grateful Dead, were able to create a society in the Sierra-Nevada Mountains where hippies danced alongside members of the Hell’s Angels. Only by creating appropriate settings and having useful items set about in ideal locations could something like a peaceful conference with the Hell’s Angels be possible.
In ways that are difficult to objectively identify we make choices and act in response to our surroundings. Most people go through their days without taking a mindful inventory of what is occurring around them. It is important to be mindful because our decisions are based on our surroundings. The choices and decisions we make stretch beyond ourselves and begin outside of ourselves. We couldn’t have come as far as we have if humankind took a flying leap every time chaos closed in around us. We seek out shelter and succor to protect not only our bodies, but our minds from the harm in the world. Our mental protection can begin with situational awareness, and knowing the effects our surroundings have on us. A good day begins with a light breakfast. A bad day begins with no heat in the middle of winter. In both instances we woke up as usual; but our set and setting make for very different outcomes.
During the middle ages there lived a wise priest. He was a noted theologian and philosopher. One day he kicked a boulder. His training and study brought him to the conclusion that the boulder was not really there. He believed that through using all of his mental capacities he could transcend physical reality. So he kicked the boulder as hard as he could, then he broke his foot.
History teaches us that there is no escape from life. As humans on planet earth we are born into a family, a clan, a tribe, a culture; we are born into a heritage and an ancestry, a world of social order that has worked to achieve perfection for millennia. We have built the world up around us, and we assume that everything is in its right place. Plodding along day after day we become accustom to routine and a sameness that dusts over everything. In a world that has become so small with our growing population it is difficult to “slow down and smell the roses.” Then, when a person does that they might think they can kick through a rock. Why do we think the way we think? How come when I want to be happy I get upset? What can I do to help set my own mind at ease. We are not just playing simple mind games with ourselves. There is a real cause behind our actions. Although most of us rarely take stock of our surroundings, we are affected by set and setting because we are a product of our environment, we become a part of the situation around us, and we are influenced by our senses.
If we need deep focus or concentration we do things like find a quiet place, or some place we feel is peaceful. We do this so that there aren’t distractions. Dr. Timothy Leary, in his studies, proved this. In his book, Flashbacks, Leary holds sessions with leading psychiatrists which attempted to unlock mysteries of human perception. During their studies, and with the aid of the powerful psychoactive drug LSD, they showed that the subconscious reacts according to perception. Leary and his group were testing theories of set of and setting. They found that a person feels less vulnerable and is more apt to find inner-peace when their surroundings are warm and inviting. They used low lighting, warm colors, and a guide to sit with, talk to, and who would document the patients’ reactions. Conversely, when they introduced bright lights, astringent smells, and chaotic sounds their patients showed varied levels of anger and frustration.
At about the same time, Tom Wolfe was writing a story about the Merry Pranksters called The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test. Tom Wolfe and the Merry Pranksters held very similar views about the effects of set and setting even though they were searching for different results. Where Leary and his crew wanted to show a path to man’s inner well-being, Wolfe and the Pranksters were seeking to unite the conscientiousness of mankind. Though when the two groups met up one night at Leary’s Millbrook estate they clashed wildly against one another, they were both achieving the same goal. The Pranksters, with help from people like Ken Keasy and the Grateful Dead, were able to create a society in the Sierra-Nevada Mountains where hippies danced alongside members of the Hell’s Angels. Only by creating appropriate settings and having useful items set about in ideal locations could something like a peaceful conference with the Hell’s Angels be possible.
In ways that are difficult to objectively identify we make choices and act in response to our surroundings. Most people go through their days without taking a mindful inventory of what is occurring around them. It is important to be mindful because our decisions are based on our surroundings. The choices and decisions we make stretch beyond ourselves and begin outside of ourselves. We couldn’t have come as far as we have if humankind took a flying leap every time chaos closed in around us. We seek out shelter and succor to protect not only our bodies, but our minds from the harm in the world. Our mental protection can begin with situational awareness, and knowing the effects our surroundings have on us. A good day begins with a light breakfast. A bad day begins with no heat in the middle of winter. In both instances we woke up as usual; but our set and setting make for very different outcomes.
05 November 2008
Reading Response -- Sewage Sludge in Oilweek
Sludge You Buddy, and Sludge Your Friends Too!
Recent news at Oilweek reports that Canadian Agriculture will probably see a decline in Ontario’s agriculture stock trading points. Reported illnesses associated with their methods of crop fertilization have been growing in numbers. When one farmer was asked about the illnesses that her and her family were experiencing she expressed concern for her livestock that were exhibiting similar illnesses including blood, bladder and urinary tract infections, chronic coughing, vomiting, and diarrhea. Another medical case associated with Ontario’s agriculture includes dairy cows producing milk that contains high levels of Valium.
Oilweek found that Canada’s crop fertilizers are to blame. To alleviate the high costs of using commercial fertilizers, the Canadian government has been giving city sewage sludge to farmers, free of cost, for use as crop fertilizer. The sludge is a combination of household and industrial waste. 120,000 tons of it is spread across 150 square kilometers of Canadian farmland. The government stresses that using sewage sludge in this way is economically beneficial to farmers. They also stress that as long as their standards are met there should be no hazardous toxins in the sludge.
The rash of medical reports linking several different illnesses to one source is evidence that standards are not being met. Oilweek’s writer brings an important issue to light by determining that the current practice of using sewage sludge as fertilizer is toxic to farmers, animals, and plant life. The evidence they present focuses on using government to ban the practice until better controls are put into place. However, they do not give us their opinion. Instead we are lead through the evidence and asked to make our own determinations. Overwhelming evidence supports a ban, but as reported the government believes industry will regulate itself.
Recent news at Oilweek reports that Canadian Agriculture will probably see a decline in Ontario’s agriculture stock trading points. Reported illnesses associated with their methods of crop fertilization have been growing in numbers. When one farmer was asked about the illnesses that her and her family were experiencing she expressed concern for her livestock that were exhibiting similar illnesses including blood, bladder and urinary tract infections, chronic coughing, vomiting, and diarrhea. Another medical case associated with Ontario’s agriculture includes dairy cows producing milk that contains high levels of Valium.
Oilweek found that Canada’s crop fertilizers are to blame. To alleviate the high costs of using commercial fertilizers, the Canadian government has been giving city sewage sludge to farmers, free of cost, for use as crop fertilizer. The sludge is a combination of household and industrial waste. 120,000 tons of it is spread across 150 square kilometers of Canadian farmland. The government stresses that using sewage sludge in this way is economically beneficial to farmers. They also stress that as long as their standards are met there should be no hazardous toxins in the sludge.
The rash of medical reports linking several different illnesses to one source is evidence that standards are not being met. Oilweek’s writer brings an important issue to light by determining that the current practice of using sewage sludge as fertilizer is toxic to farmers, animals, and plant life. The evidence they present focuses on using government to ban the practice until better controls are put into place. However, they do not give us their opinion. Instead we are lead through the evidence and asked to make our own determinations. Overwhelming evidence supports a ban, but as reported the government believes industry will regulate itself.
Step 3: Research Draft 1
Methane Mania: Methane Hydrates and Their Effects
There is no doubt that we live in precarious times. A large part of today’s global interests lie in energy production and consumption. As populations increase there is a growing need for more and more resources to ensure a somewhat equal quality of life. We rely on large governments and world markets to help provide us with the three modern essentials for sustaining life: food, clothing, and shelter. This means that food processing centers must be erected to house large numbers of animals. To supply the masses with clothing we have invented large commercial and industrial factories that can thread their way through a year’s cotton crop in no time at all. Industry has adapted housing development to meet the needs of hot climates and cold climates, creating insulated hot-box units that have temperature control exclusive from the outside environment. Our ever developing modern world is dependent on large quantities of usable energy, but it is also leaving a very heavy carbon foot print in its wake. In our food processing centers, where large numbers of livestock are raised in close relations to one another, scientists find measurably elevated levels of methane gas. Commercial and Industrial factories have historically emitted countless environmental toxins in gaseous form. In our homes we primarily burn carbon-based fuels to keep ourselves warm. These things all add up to very ripe conditions for the greenhouse effect; wherein, Earth’s atmosphere becomes super-saturated with gases that trap heat from the Sun.
As our man-made lifestyles continue to need abundant sources of energy we are slowly becoming aware of our own addition to the overall stock of greenhouse emissions. Our efforts now drive us towards fuels that burn more efficiently and less toxically. Of the various gases that fill our atmosphere, methane is currently in the spotlight. Geologists, geophysicists, chemical engineers, ecologists, paleoclimatologists, hydrologists, biogeochemists, and Quaternary anthropologists alike are flocking to their methane testing laboratories. D. Archer, from the University of Chicago’s Department of the Geophysical Sciences, spent time conducting methane tests along the Arctic coastline of Siberia (521). However, a desolate and isolated place in world geography doesn’t seem a likely place for studies of possible annihilation due to heavy amounts of methane. Scientists aren’t focusing on the air. There is a goldmine in oceanic and permafrost deposit methane gas research. Although escaping methane gases in the Arctic Ocean does not raise an alarm for some people, it should because the pockets of methane gas under the ocean floor and in the permafrost are vast, the gas can potentially be used as a source of alternative energy, and it may very well mark a climactic doomsday.
A very common idea of methane is related to us in the children’s rhyme, “Beans, beans, the wonderful fruit; the more you eat, the more you toot.” A more technical study of methane gas names this process “bacterial methanogenesis” (Koh & Sloan 1639). Koh and Sloan relate that bacterial methanogenesis is the process by which bacteria breakdown organic matter, creating methane as an excreted byproduct (1639). All organic matter on Earth degrades over time. Methane occurs in nature in one of two forms, biogenic and thermogenic (Archer 521). Archer states that, “one is biological, mediated by bacteria at low temperatures, and the other is abiological, occurring spontaneously at elevated temperatures” (521). The current atmospheric methane level is 3 Gtons (gigaton), and outside of human interaction seems to maintain an overall equilibrium with the other atmospheric gases rather well (Archer 523).
The total inventory of methane comes from atmospheric counts, and from deposits of solid methane formations found deep under ocean floors and buried within the Arctic permafrost. These solid methane formations are categorized as hydrates. In their Geophysical Research Letters, Charles Paull et al surmise that, “gas hydrate is a solid phase comprised of water and low-molecular-weight gases, usually methane, that forms within sediments under conditions of low temperature, high pressure and adequate gas concentration” (1). Methane hydrates also go by a second name, clathrates, as in Clathrate Gun Hypothesis (Wikipedia). The Clathrate Gun Hypothesis theorizes that an increase in global temperature by at least 5 degrees Celsius will melt the global ice caps, whereby releasing an estimated 700,000 trillion cubic feet of gas world-wide (Koh & Sloan 1636). The Canadian Broadcasting Company, CNN News, and The Discovery Channel have only recently begun exploring this theory of global heating and consequent methane explosion. Scientists aren’t perturbed by the news. According to them science has known about gas hydrates since as early as 1778 (Koh & Sloan 1636).
Old news or not, for two hundred years very little was known about gas hydrates. It wasn’t until the mid-1990s and the advent of neutron and X-ray diffraction that science could mathematically produce the hydrate molecular shapes (Koh & Sloan 1637). In producing these models scientists can better understand how gas hydrates, and clathrates form and inter-act with the environment.
The Arctic permafrost was not always present. At a distant point in planetary history the ground that is now covered in ice was the playground for immeasurable numbers of organic life forms. During formation of the
current ice caps, what were once wetlands became frozen ice sheets. All of the biomass trapped in the ice has slowly decomposed in the low temperatures, forming frozen methane, or methane hydrates. As surrounding temperatures rise methane hydrates thaw releasing methane gas into the atmosphere. Charles Paull et al conducted experiments in the Beaufort Sea to better understand methane hydrates within the offshore permafrost. They studied “mud volcanoes,” “pingo-like features (PLFs)” (1). Their studies found, “more than 1,350 pingos, generally 10-40 meters tall and upwards of 100 meters or more in diameter” (1). These features are known to actively expel methane gas. The research group explains that as surface water temperature increases, so does the permafrost laden oceanic subsurface. “Warming results in gas hydrate decomposition in a gradually thickening zone, releasing gaseous methane into the sediments. Bubble formation associated with this phase change will create overpressured conditions: material may flow both laterally and vertically in response to overpressure: displaced sediments rise upwards to form the PLF and allow gas to vent” (Paull et al 4).
Methane gas is trapped within ice-shells that occupy the spaces between sediments. If these ice-shells melt, all of the methane effected by the warmth will escape. We are assured that most methane release is absorbed and used by the planet. This process is said to be a part of a much longer time cycle that is measured in kilo-years (kYr). According to the data collected by ……. (??? ##). The current methane release rate is measured against its decomposition rate. ……. have assessed that these numbers show an equilibrium between atmospheric methane release and its decomposition into carbon dioxide, which the planetary wetlands use as food (??? ##).
Scientists remain optimistic about discovering the properties of methane hydrates, and their uses. The major obstacle in hydrate production is that hydrates exist as the cement bond between sediments lying on ocean beds (??? ##). It is difficult to release that bond and capture the methane before the methane escapes into its water environment, where it degrades as quickly as …….m/s (??? ##). Typically, over a depth of 700 meters, methane gas will degrade completely before reaching the surface, thus creating no sea-to-air transfer of gas. Hydrate formations remain stable with the overall environment at depths of 700 meters or more. It is believed that atmospheric conditions cannot effect the ocean environment at those depths because of the temperature constants and high pressure levels. This means that global melting would actually reinforce hydrate deposits in the deep oceans by raising pressure levels on the sea floor. Geologists agree there is evidence of an ancient landslide in the Arctic Ocean that was half the distance of
Norway to Greenland in length that evidence shows might have caused a massive release of methane by disturbing the hydrates along the entire rift. They do not have conclusive evidence, but they find it a plausible cause for prehistoric mass extinction. The decaying biomass from that extinction period has formed into today’s methane hydrates.
Doomsday activists see this as evidence of a coming global catastrophe. Scientists, however, see this as a natural process that has been occurring for eons, and will continue long after our time on Earth ends. Some people have become apprehensive, not about ocean bound hydrates, but land bound hydrates trapped within permafrost. Climatologists disagree as to whether or not global warming is affecting permafrost in the way described by media groups. CNN and Discovery calculate that global warming is melting the polar ice caps - to include permafrost - which releases land bound hydrates. Permafrost is defined as ice that forms and does not melt for a period of two years or more. One area of the Siberian Arctic has land bound permafrost hundreds of meters thick that vents methane gas. Land bound hydrates have been found within the North Slope of Alaska. Global warming could heat the planet enough to melt the land bound permafrost, and expose the methane hydrates. If this happened very quickly there would be a very steep rise in the atmospheric methane count, creating further global warming. We are assured though that there is only enough methane hydrate within the land bound permafrost to affect our daily lives for a few decades. It is not believed that this sort of melting would significantly damage the human population; nor is it believed to be able to trigger further methane explosions further under the oceans. Apart from landslides, sciences believes that an ice age, which would relieve pressure from the ocean floors, would be the most likely trigger of a methane release massive enough to cause another mass extinction period.
Rather than brood in doom and gloom, industry is searching for ways of better utilizing what is known to be a usable energy source. Technology has netted us the ability to use methane gas as a combustion fuel. Since we can
make fire with it we know that it has further energy applications: applications such as heating our homes, powering our factories, and possibly
fueling our vehicles. What was once thought to be ice buildup inside deep oil wells is now known to be hydrate formation and accumulation within the pipe. Oil companies had previously mixed glycol into the pipes to stop supposed ice buildup because it transferred higher temperature levels throughout the well depth. Now they are looking for ways of extracting the hydrates intact, and using the methane gas trapped within. The challenge is in bringing the hydrates to the surface without degrading the methane
content (??? ##). There is also excitement about using the hydrate models to create gas storage packets for commercial transfer (??? ##).
Methane hydrates have proven to be of great importance. Some believe our lives are balanced by them. There are many within the science community who have found the Arctic Ocean coasts to be the best indicator of which way the methane pendulum will swing. At the same time, infrastructure suitable to methane hydrate exploitation already exists in the form of Arctic oil production. The probability of economic boom caused by utilizing these natural energy deposits is higher than that of environmental doom. Although science cannot agree about the future of methane hydrates, the likelihood of a Clathrate Gun, or much of the endogenic origins of known hydrate deposits they all view methane gas research through core sampling to be valuable. It is this research that will bring savings in energy into the homes of many people.
Methane is more than just a foul smelling gas. It is an essential component in the life cycle of our planet. Earth expels methane, breaks it down in the atmosphere, and then uses what is left as the planets own energy source. Even though there exists enough methane hydrate to destroy all life on Earth, it is not possible for all of the methane to be released at once. In the mean time it only makes sense to use this natural resource, and study its formations more closely.
--Works Cited--
Archer, D. “Methane Hydrate Stability and Anthropogenic Climate Change.” European Geosciences Union 4 (2008): 522-44. Biogeosciences. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.biogeosciences.net>.
Connor, Steve. “Exclusive: The Methane Time Bomb.” The Independent (23 Sep. 2008). 31 Oct. 2008 http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/exclusive-the-methane-time-bomb-938932.html.
Decker, Paul L; Wartes, Marwan A. “Geochemistry of the Aupuk Gas Seep Along the Colville River — Evidence for a Thermogenic Origin.” Alaska Department of Natural Resources: Geological and Geophysical Surveys PIR 2008-1E 47-54 (2008): Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.dggs.dnr.state.ak.us>.
Dyer, Gwynne. “Time for Action: Arctic Ocean Methane Signals Catastrophe.” Fast Forward Weekly (Oct. 2 2008). 31 Oct. 2008 http://www.ffwdweekly.com/article/news-views/international/time-for-action-2637/.
Etiope, G; Milkov, A. V; Derbyshire, E. “Did Geologic Emissions of Methane Play Any Role in Quaternary Climate Change.” Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008): 79-88. ScienceDirect Freedom Collection. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.sciencedirect.com>.
Fulton-Bennett, Kim. "Methane Bubbling Through Seafloor Creates Undersea Hills." Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute 5 Feb. 2007. 31 Oct. 2008 http://www.mbari.org/news/news_releases/2007/paull-plfs.html.
Jacquot, Jeremy. "If Life Gives You Methane, Make Methane Energy." Discover Magazine (31 Jan. 2008). 31 Oct. 2008 http://discovermagazine.com/2008/feb/if-life-gives-you-methane-make-methane-energy.
Kennedy, Martin; David, Mrofka; von der Borch, Chris. "Snowball Earth Termination by Destabilization of Equitorial Permafrost Methane Clathrate." Letters 453.29 (2008): 642-45. Nature. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.nature.com/nature>.
Koh, Carolyn A; Sloan, E. Dendy. “Natural Gas Hydrates: Recent Advances and Challenges in Energy and Environmental Applications.” American Institute of Chemical Engineers 53.7 (2007): 1636-43. Wiley Interscience. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.interscience.wiley.com>.
Paull, Charles K; Ussler, W; Dallimore, Scott R; Blasco, Steve M; Lorenson, Thomas D; Melling, Humfrey;Medioli, Barbara E; Nixon, F. Mark; McLaughlin, Fiona A. “Origin of Pingo-Like Features on the Beaufort Sea Shelf and Their Possible Relationship to Decomposing Methane Gas Hydrates.” Geophysical Research Letters 34 (2007): 1-5. American Geophysical Union. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.agu.org>.
Shakhova, N; “Methane Release on the Arctic East Siberian Shelf.” Geophysical Research Abstracts 9 (2007): 1-2. European Geosciences Union. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.egu.eu>.
Strickland, Eliza. "A Monstrous Methane Belch Once Warmed the Earth." Discover Magazine (29 May 2008). 31 Oct. 2008 http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2008/05/29/a-monstrous-methane-belch/.
Strickland, Eliza. "Methane Bubbles in the Arctic Ocean Give Climate Scientists the Willies." Discover Magazine (24 Sept. 2008). 31 Oct. 2008 http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2008/09/24/methane-bubbles-in-the-arctic-ocean-give-climate-scientists-the-willies/.
“The Big Debate: Global Warming or National Security?” CNN Technology News 10 May 2007. 31 Oct. 2008 http://www.cnn.com/2007/TECH/science/08/30/energy.debate/index.html?iref=newssearch.
“Scientists Tapping Arctic Ocean Methane as Potential Cleaner Energy Source.” CBC News 27 Feb. 2007. 31 Oct. 2008 http://www.cbc.ca/technology/story/2008/02/27/nwt-methane.html.
There is no doubt that we live in precarious times. A large part of today’s global interests lie in energy production and consumption. As populations increase there is a growing need for more and more resources to ensure a somewhat equal quality of life. We rely on large governments and world markets to help provide us with the three modern essentials for sustaining life: food, clothing, and shelter. This means that food processing centers must be erected to house large numbers of animals. To supply the masses with clothing we have invented large commercial and industrial factories that can thread their way through a year’s cotton crop in no time at all. Industry has adapted housing development to meet the needs of hot climates and cold climates, creating insulated hot-box units that have temperature control exclusive from the outside environment. Our ever developing modern world is dependent on large quantities of usable energy, but it is also leaving a very heavy carbon foot print in its wake. In our food processing centers, where large numbers of livestock are raised in close relations to one another, scientists find measurably elevated levels of methane gas. Commercial and Industrial factories have historically emitted countless environmental toxins in gaseous form. In our homes we primarily burn carbon-based fuels to keep ourselves warm. These things all add up to very ripe conditions for the greenhouse effect; wherein, Earth’s atmosphere becomes super-saturated with gases that trap heat from the Sun.
As our man-made lifestyles continue to need abundant sources of energy we are slowly becoming aware of our own addition to the overall stock of greenhouse emissions. Our efforts now drive us towards fuels that burn more efficiently and less toxically. Of the various gases that fill our atmosphere, methane is currently in the spotlight. Geologists, geophysicists, chemical engineers, ecologists, paleoclimatologists, hydrologists, biogeochemists, and Quaternary anthropologists alike are flocking to their methane testing laboratories. D. Archer, from the University of Chicago’s Department of the Geophysical Sciences, spent time conducting methane tests along the Arctic coastline of Siberia (521). However, a desolate and isolated place in world geography doesn’t seem a likely place for studies of possible annihilation due to heavy amounts of methane. Scientists aren’t focusing on the air. There is a goldmine in oceanic and permafrost deposit methane gas research. Although escaping methane gases in the Arctic Ocean does not raise an alarm for some people, it should because the pockets of methane gas under the ocean floor and in the permafrost are vast, the gas can potentially be used as a source of alternative energy, and it may very well mark a climactic doomsday.
A very common idea of methane is related to us in the children’s rhyme, “Beans, beans, the wonderful fruit; the more you eat, the more you toot.” A more technical study of methane gas names this process “bacterial methanogenesis” (Koh & Sloan 1639). Koh and Sloan relate that bacterial methanogenesis is the process by which bacteria breakdown organic matter, creating methane as an excreted byproduct (1639). All organic matter on Earth degrades over time. Methane occurs in nature in one of two forms, biogenic and thermogenic (Archer 521). Archer states that, “one is biological, mediated by bacteria at low temperatures, and the other is abiological, occurring spontaneously at elevated temperatures” (521). The current atmospheric methane level is 3 Gtons (gigaton), and outside of human interaction seems to maintain an overall equilibrium with the other atmospheric gases rather well (Archer 523).
The total inventory of methane comes from atmospheric counts, and from deposits of solid methane formations found deep under ocean floors and buried within the Arctic permafrost. These solid methane formations are categorized as hydrates. In their Geophysical Research Letters, Charles Paull et al surmise that, “gas hydrate is a solid phase comprised of water and low-molecular-weight gases, usually methane, that forms within sediments under conditions of low temperature, high pressure and adequate gas concentration” (1). Methane hydrates also go by a second name, clathrates, as in Clathrate Gun Hypothesis (Wikipedia). The Clathrate Gun Hypothesis theorizes that an increase in global temperature by at least 5 degrees Celsius will melt the global ice caps, whereby releasing an estimated 700,000 trillion cubic feet of gas world-wide (Koh & Sloan 1636). The Canadian Broadcasting Company, CNN News, and The Discovery Channel have only recently begun exploring this theory of global heating and consequent methane explosion. Scientists aren’t perturbed by the news. According to them science has known about gas hydrates since as early as 1778 (Koh & Sloan 1636).
Old news or not, for two hundred years very little was known about gas hydrates. It wasn’t until the mid-1990s and the advent of neutron and X-ray diffraction that science could mathematically produce the hydrate molecular shapes (Koh & Sloan 1637). In producing these models scientists can better understand how gas hydrates, and clathrates form and inter-act with the environment.
The Arctic permafrost was not always present. At a distant point in planetary history the ground that is now covered in ice was the playground for immeasurable numbers of organic life forms. During formation of the
current ice caps, what were once wetlands became frozen ice sheets. All of the biomass trapped in the ice has slowly decomposed in the low temperatures, forming frozen methane, or methane hydrates. As surrounding temperatures rise methane hydrates thaw releasing methane gas into the atmosphere. Charles Paull et al conducted experiments in the Beaufort Sea to better understand methane hydrates within the offshore permafrost. They studied “mud volcanoes,” “pingo-like features (PLFs)” (1). Their studies found, “more than 1,350 pingos, generally 10-40 meters tall and upwards of 100 meters or more in diameter” (1). These features are known to actively expel methane gas. The research group explains that as surface water temperature increases, so does the permafrost laden oceanic subsurface. “Warming results in gas hydrate decomposition in a gradually thickening zone, releasing gaseous methane into the sediments. Bubble formation associated with this phase change will create overpressured conditions: material may flow both laterally and vertically in response to overpressure: displaced sediments rise upwards to form the PLF and allow gas to vent” (Paull et al 4).
Methane gas is trapped within ice-shells that occupy the spaces between sediments. If these ice-shells melt, all of the methane effected by the warmth will escape. We are assured that most methane release is absorbed and used by the planet. This process is said to be a part of a much longer time cycle that is measured in kilo-years (kYr). According to the data collected by ……. (??? ##). The current methane release rate is measured against its decomposition rate. ……. have assessed that these numbers show an equilibrium between atmospheric methane release and its decomposition into carbon dioxide, which the planetary wetlands use as food (??? ##).
Scientists remain optimistic about discovering the properties of methane hydrates, and their uses. The major obstacle in hydrate production is that hydrates exist as the cement bond between sediments lying on ocean beds (??? ##). It is difficult to release that bond and capture the methane before the methane escapes into its water environment, where it degrades as quickly as …….m/s (??? ##). Typically, over a depth of 700 meters, methane gas will degrade completely before reaching the surface, thus creating no sea-to-air transfer of gas. Hydrate formations remain stable with the overall environment at depths of 700 meters or more. It is believed that atmospheric conditions cannot effect the ocean environment at those depths because of the temperature constants and high pressure levels. This means that global melting would actually reinforce hydrate deposits in the deep oceans by raising pressure levels on the sea floor. Geologists agree there is evidence of an ancient landslide in the Arctic Ocean that was half the distance of
Norway to Greenland in length that evidence shows might have caused a massive release of methane by disturbing the hydrates along the entire rift. They do not have conclusive evidence, but they find it a plausible cause for prehistoric mass extinction. The decaying biomass from that extinction period has formed into today’s methane hydrates.
Doomsday activists see this as evidence of a coming global catastrophe. Scientists, however, see this as a natural process that has been occurring for eons, and will continue long after our time on Earth ends. Some people have become apprehensive, not about ocean bound hydrates, but land bound hydrates trapped within permafrost. Climatologists disagree as to whether or not global warming is affecting permafrost in the way described by media groups. CNN and Discovery calculate that global warming is melting the polar ice caps - to include permafrost - which releases land bound hydrates. Permafrost is defined as ice that forms and does not melt for a period of two years or more. One area of the Siberian Arctic has land bound permafrost hundreds of meters thick that vents methane gas. Land bound hydrates have been found within the North Slope of Alaska. Global warming could heat the planet enough to melt the land bound permafrost, and expose the methane hydrates. If this happened very quickly there would be a very steep rise in the atmospheric methane count, creating further global warming. We are assured though that there is only enough methane hydrate within the land bound permafrost to affect our daily lives for a few decades. It is not believed that this sort of melting would significantly damage the human population; nor is it believed to be able to trigger further methane explosions further under the oceans. Apart from landslides, sciences believes that an ice age, which would relieve pressure from the ocean floors, would be the most likely trigger of a methane release massive enough to cause another mass extinction period.
Rather than brood in doom and gloom, industry is searching for ways of better utilizing what is known to be a usable energy source. Technology has netted us the ability to use methane gas as a combustion fuel. Since we can
make fire with it we know that it has further energy applications: applications such as heating our homes, powering our factories, and possibly
fueling our vehicles. What was once thought to be ice buildup inside deep oil wells is now known to be hydrate formation and accumulation within the pipe. Oil companies had previously mixed glycol into the pipes to stop supposed ice buildup because it transferred higher temperature levels throughout the well depth. Now they are looking for ways of extracting the hydrates intact, and using the methane gas trapped within. The challenge is in bringing the hydrates to the surface without degrading the methane
content (??? ##). There is also excitement about using the hydrate models to create gas storage packets for commercial transfer (??? ##).
Methane hydrates have proven to be of great importance. Some believe our lives are balanced by them. There are many within the science community who have found the Arctic Ocean coasts to be the best indicator of which way the methane pendulum will swing. At the same time, infrastructure suitable to methane hydrate exploitation already exists in the form of Arctic oil production. The probability of economic boom caused by utilizing these natural energy deposits is higher than that of environmental doom. Although science cannot agree about the future of methane hydrates, the likelihood of a Clathrate Gun, or much of the endogenic origins of known hydrate deposits they all view methane gas research through core sampling to be valuable. It is this research that will bring savings in energy into the homes of many people.
Methane is more than just a foul smelling gas. It is an essential component in the life cycle of our planet. Earth expels methane, breaks it down in the atmosphere, and then uses what is left as the planets own energy source. Even though there exists enough methane hydrate to destroy all life on Earth, it is not possible for all of the methane to be released at once. In the mean time it only makes sense to use this natural resource, and study its formations more closely.
--Works Cited--
Archer, D. “Methane Hydrate Stability and Anthropogenic Climate Change.” European Geosciences Union 4 (2008): 522-44. Biogeosciences. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.biogeosciences.net>.
Connor, Steve. “Exclusive: The Methane Time Bomb.” The Independent (23 Sep. 2008). 31 Oct. 2008 http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/exclusive-the-methane-time-bomb-938932.html.
Decker, Paul L; Wartes, Marwan A. “Geochemistry of the Aupuk Gas Seep Along the Colville River — Evidence for a Thermogenic Origin.” Alaska Department of Natural Resources: Geological and Geophysical Surveys PIR 2008-1E 47-54 (2008): Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.dggs.dnr.state.ak.us>.
Dyer, Gwynne. “Time for Action: Arctic Ocean Methane Signals Catastrophe.” Fast Forward Weekly (Oct. 2 2008). 31 Oct. 2008 http://www.ffwdweekly.com/article/news-views/international/time-for-action-2637/.
Etiope, G; Milkov, A. V; Derbyshire, E. “Did Geologic Emissions of Methane Play Any Role in Quaternary Climate Change.” Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008): 79-88. ScienceDirect Freedom Collection. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.sciencedirect.com>.
Fulton-Bennett, Kim. "Methane Bubbling Through Seafloor Creates Undersea Hills." Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute 5 Feb. 2007. 31 Oct. 2008 http://www.mbari.org/news/news_releases/2007/paull-plfs.html.
Jacquot, Jeremy. "If Life Gives You Methane, Make Methane Energy." Discover Magazine (31 Jan. 2008). 31 Oct. 2008 http://discovermagazine.com/2008/feb/if-life-gives-you-methane-make-methane-energy.
Kennedy, Martin; David, Mrofka; von der Borch, Chris. "Snowball Earth Termination by Destabilization of Equitorial Permafrost Methane Clathrate." Letters 453.29 (2008): 642-45. Nature. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.nature.com/nature>.
Koh, Carolyn A; Sloan, E. Dendy. “Natural Gas Hydrates: Recent Advances and Challenges in Energy and Environmental Applications.” American Institute of Chemical Engineers 53.7 (2007): 1636-43. Wiley Interscience. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.interscience.wiley.com>.
Paull, Charles K; Ussler, W; Dallimore, Scott R; Blasco, Steve M; Lorenson, Thomas D; Melling, Humfrey;Medioli, Barbara E; Nixon, F. Mark; McLaughlin, Fiona A. “Origin of Pingo-Like Features on the Beaufort Sea Shelf and Their Possible Relationship to Decomposing Methane Gas Hydrates.” Geophysical Research Letters 34 (2007): 1-5. American Geophysical Union. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.agu.org>.
Shakhova, N; “Methane Release on the Arctic East Siberian Shelf.” Geophysical Research Abstracts 9 (2007): 1-2. European Geosciences Union. ILLiad. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks Lib., Fairbanks, AK. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://www.egu.eu>.
Strickland, Eliza. "A Monstrous Methane Belch Once Warmed the Earth." Discover Magazine (29 May 2008). 31 Oct. 2008 http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2008/05/29/a-monstrous-methane-belch/.
Strickland, Eliza. "Methane Bubbles in the Arctic Ocean Give Climate Scientists the Willies." Discover Magazine (24 Sept. 2008). 31 Oct. 2008 http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2008/09/24/methane-bubbles-in-the-arctic-ocean-give-climate-scientists-the-willies/.
“The Big Debate: Global Warming or National Security?” CNN Technology News 10 May 2007. 31 Oct. 2008 http://www.cnn.com/2007/TECH/science/08/30/energy.debate/index.html?iref=newssearch.
“Scientists Tapping Arctic Ocean Methane as Potential Cleaner Energy Source.” CBC News 27 Feb. 2007. 31 Oct. 2008 http://www.cbc.ca/technology/story/2008/02/27/nwt-methane.html.
02 November 2008
Reading Response - Grammar Girl Episode #49 - Run-On Sentences
Grammar Girl’s episode # 49 is about run-on sentences. She describes a run-on sentence as a sentence that does not have punctuation. A run-on can also be a sentence that is very long, and has improper punctuation. The key in both instances is punctuation. Sentences, she says, should be written out to read the same as how we say them; that is, they should be written with pauses, sighs, exclamations, questions, and they should link ideas together. Punctuation is what gives text its life.
Years ago I was reading James Joyce’s novel, Ulysses, when punctuation finally became demystified. The third part of Ulysses is tens of pages long, but only contains a very small handful of periods. At first I was having trouble keeping track of how the story was flowing. But I slowed down, listened to the rhythm of the punctuation, and began to see what was being described. Each sentence, including some that were pages long, was written using extraordinary punctuation. The idea that Joyce manifests is the rambling process of conscious thought. He displays that even though our inner voices are ceaseless and sometimes droning, they are not monotonous dialogs void of emotion.
James Joyce displays in Ulysses what Grammar Girl suggests in this week’s episode. Long and descriptive sentences are possible, but only with proper punctuation. Proper punctuation keeps thought and emotion cohesive. We should use common sense when we write our sentences, and include punctuation to denote the same sounds and emotions as our thoughts.
Years ago I was reading James Joyce’s novel, Ulysses, when punctuation finally became demystified. The third part of Ulysses is tens of pages long, but only contains a very small handful of periods. At first I was having trouble keeping track of how the story was flowing. But I slowed down, listened to the rhythm of the punctuation, and began to see what was being described. Each sentence, including some that were pages long, was written using extraordinary punctuation. The idea that Joyce manifests is the rambling process of conscious thought. He displays that even though our inner voices are ceaseless and sometimes droning, they are not monotonous dialogs void of emotion.
James Joyce displays in Ulysses what Grammar Girl suggests in this week’s episode. Long and descriptive sentences are possible, but only with proper punctuation. Proper punctuation keeps thought and emotion cohesive. We should use common sense when we write our sentences, and include punctuation to denote the same sounds and emotions as our thoughts.
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